Biological Conservation And Its Importance Environmental Sciences Essay

Biological Conservation And Its Importance Environmental Sciences Essay The irreversible loss of the earths diverse biological resources is given major importance today. The living resources are primarily threatened by habitat degradation and loss, habitat fragmentation, overexploitation, and species invasions (Groom Carroll, 2006; Mittermeier Bowles, 1993) which most experts believed we are now confronting the sixth major extinction in history. The different natural resources or biodiversity, as defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity, is the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems (CBD, 1992). The planets biological diversity basically gives value to our social and economic life. We use the living world as a resource for food supply, an energy source, a source for recreation, a major source of raw materials for medicines, and a natural resource for industrial products. It is a source of many of our current medicines (e.g., 25% of all pharmaceutical prescriptions in the US contain active ingredients from plants and 3000 antibiotics such as penicillin are derived from microorganisms, (WRI/IUCN/UNEP, 1992). Furthermore, people are looking to the natural world as an escape and as a means of maintaining their sanity, especially in the industrialized nations. All of this translates into good economics as well, as the growing industry of ecotourism and other nature-based forms of recreation (e.g., fishing, hunting, hiking) becoming ever more popular. Worldwide, nature tourism generates some $12 billion annually (Lindberg, 1991) and it is likely to grow even more rapidly in the tr opical countries, where it is already a major foreign exchange earner for several countries. Moreover, Pearce et al. (2007) categorized the economic values or benefits of biodiversity into four general components: First, its contribution to ecosystem functions which include watershed regulation, nutrient cycling and microclimate mediation, the provision of global services such as climate regulation and carbon sequestration, and evolutionary processes. Second, the commercial and use values which involve the harvesting use and marketing of particular biodiversity commodities, such as timber, bush meat and medicinal plants. Third, non-use values which reflect the peoples willingness to pay for biodiversity conservation regardless of the uses made of biodiversity. Motivations for non-use value vary some notion of stewardship, some notion of Natures right to exist, a concern to leave an asset for future generations, aesthetics, and so on. Fourth, its contribution to ecosystem resilience derived from aggregated diversity i.e. from the aggregated value of genetic diversity within species, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. The diversity of nature not only offers us a vast power of choice for our current needs and desires. It also enhances the role of nature as a source of solutions for the future needs and challenges of mankind. The earths genes, species, and ecosystems are the products of over 3 billions of evolution, and are the basis for our survival. Humans depend on other organisms for food, medicines, and raw materials. Our survival is tied to the health of the ecosystems we live in. The diversity of life ensures that living things will be able to adapt to a future, which is certain to be full of change. In very basic terms, in order to adapt to a changing environment, the raw materials of nature as well as humanity itself require genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. Daly Cobb (1989) emphasized this point when he said that the diversity of nature increases the likelihood that at least some species will survive and give rise to new lineages that will replenish the earths biodiversity. Living things also have an intrinsic value and a beauty that is considerable and without which our life would be poorer. All these things make the maintenance of biological diversity vitally important to humankind, coming from the opportunities it provides humanity to adapt to local and global change. Biological resources now face serious repercussions due to pervasive human activities. Species are becoming extinct, ecosystems and ecosystem types are lost and the remaining populations and species are losing their diversity. Thus, everyone is convinced about the importance of biological conservation. Conservation of natural resources is the major focus of Conservation Biology the scientific study of the nature and status of earths biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystem from excessive rates of extinction. To date, some 1.7 million known species exist but the great majority of species alive today, possibly as much as 90 per cent, are not known (Gunter, 2004). IUCN (1980) defined conservation as the management of human use of the biosphere so that it yields benefits to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs of future generations. The scope of IUCNs concept of conservation is further expounded by the objectives of living resource conservation, and that is (1) to maintain essential ecological processes; (2) to preserve genetic diversity: and (3) to ensure the sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems. The key aim of biological conservation is to maintain the diversity of living organisms, their habitats and the interrelationships between organisms and their environment (Spellerberg Hardes, 1992). Furthermore, as claimed by Siipi (2004), biological conservation can be carried out in various ways but generally, it revolves around the standard methods of ecosystem preservation, ecosystem restoration, and ecosystem engineering. There are several studies conducted on assessing attitudes towards environmental issues. Major themes of study commonly focused on the attitudes of the people towards environmental conservation (Badola, 1998; Fiallo Jacobson, 1995; Newmark et al, 1993; Infield, 1988; Walpole Goodwin, 2001). Other studies directed their attention on the attitudes towards wildlife conservation (Morgan Gramann, 1989; Kellert, 1994; Sekhar Udaya, 2003; Gadd, 2005). Attitudinal surveys were also conducted to students pertaining to environmental awareness, knowledge and attitudes. Chan (1996) and Tikka et al (2000) reported that female students showed more positive environmental attitudes than male students. However, Arcury et al.(1986) showed that males are more aware and sensitive to environmental issues than females. While Thang Kumarasamy (2006) and Caro et al. (2003) reported that gender had limited or no bearing on students perceptions of the environment. Previous researchers like Deng et al (2006) and Larijani and Yeshodhara (2008) also found out that environmental attitudes differ among race, cultures and societies. Academic major is said to be a contributing factor also which affects environmental attitudes (Karanth et al., 2008; Ozden, 2008) and as well as the type of conservation knowledge imparted to students strongly influenced their commitment towards conservation initiatives (Barraza and Walford, 2002). Results of different studie s also showed different manners for several factors like school type, age, income, and residence (Korhonen Lappalainen, 2004; Tuncer et al., 2005). What are ENGOs? Definition of an NGO There have been a lot of labels that apply for NGOs such as, peoples organization, peoples movement, trade union, cooperative, community organization, coalition, network, federation, alliance and united front. These names are still current but are now captured by a new catch-all category civil society organizations (CSOs). The concept of civil society is complex, vague and elusive, however, as it is difficult to deploy a single definition to cover a range of organisations broad enough to include the church, tribal structures, major international agencies, single issue campaign groups, semi-independent public sector agencies, business fora, and small local/national NGOs, while still retaining operational usefulness (Haley Clayton, 2003). . Moreover, civil society is sometimes referred to as the third sector, indicating its distinct status from the public and private sectors (McArthur, 2008). Thus, CSOs refer to different types of non-corporate private voluntary institutions promoting a variety of public causes. NGO is only one form of CSO, though often the two are taken to mean the same thing. However, it can be argued that all NGOs can be regarded as civil society organizations though not all civil society organizations are NGOs. NGOs take different forms and play different roles in different continents, with the NGO sector being most developed in Latin America and parts of Asia. The roots of NGOs are different according to the geographical and historical context. As stated by Schiavo-Campo Sundaram (2001), NGOs are not-for-profit organizations and can be recognized as such if they are privately set up and sufficiently autonomous in its activity, that is independent of direct governmental control. Secondly, an NGO should clearly define its voluntary character. Thirdly, it cannot be considered a political party with an aim of attaining political power. And lastly, an NGO should support development which demonstrates its public interest character. Furthermore, the non-governmental aspect of NGO, as stated by White (1994), places it conventionally outside the state in civil society, i.e. intermediate associational realm between state and family populated by organizations which are separate from the state, enjoy autonomy in relation to the state and are formed voluntarily by members of society to protect or extend their interests or values. Although there is contestation of the definition of an NGO, it is widely accepted that these are organizations which pursue activities to relieve the suffering, promote interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, and undertake community development (Cleary, 1997). While Turner and Hulme (1997) stated that NGOs are generally registered organizations, community groups, professional associations, trade unions, cooperate charity organizations whose aim is to improve the well being of their members and of those areas in which they exists. The World Bank, on the other hand, sees NGOs as private organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, and/or undertake community development. The concept of NGO came into use in 1945 following the establishment of the United Nations Organizations which recognized the need to give a consultative role to organizations which were not classified as neither government nor member states (Willett, 2002). There are certain features which differentiate NGOs from government agencies, even when they are performing similar roles. NGOs have the capacity to experiment and learn from experience, linking processes to outcomes and are also able to enlist the energies and commitment of intended beneficiaries. Fowler (1988) has identified two key distinctive characteristics of NGOs. Firstly, the relationship of the NGO with intended beneficiaries is based upon principles of voluntarism rather than those of control which is typical of government. This means that intended beneficiaries are involved in program design and management. Secondly, it is argued that NGOs have a task oriented approach that permits them to achieve appropriate organizat ional development, which encourages change and diversity rather than control and uniformity, which may hamper progress. Environmental NGOs (ENGOs) One of the stakeholders involved in biological conservation is the so-called Environmental NGOs (ENGOS). These interest groups hope to save the worlds biological resources from rapid extinctions and aspire to awaken a sleeping public to the tragic loss of biological resources that is unfolding today. ENGOs exist at local, national and international levels (e.g. Friends of the Earth, WorldWide Fund for Nature, Greenpeace, etc.). Many ENGOs operate under the explicit purpose of preserving endangered species and ecosystems, and thus make biological conservation the core principle under which they operate. Others focus more broadly on sustainable development and within this framework, they also contribute to biological conservation. As stated by Trzyna (2008), not all conservation organizations have kept their traditional focus but they have become part of the broader environmental movement. There is an increasing number of organizations that started either as conservation or conventiona l environmental groups but now define themselves as part of the new movement for sustainability. Most of the largest NGOs working on biological conservation are either based in the United States (e.g. Conservation International, The Nature Conservancy) or Europe (World Conservation Monitoring Center, Birdlife International). In the opinion of Astbury (1998), an ENGO has a mission statement and/or set of guiding principles emphasizing environmental concerns, e.g. biological conservation. They play an increasingly prominent and important role in representing environmental interest. Environmental NGOs are distinct from environmental movements in a way that there is a formal organization exists in ENGOs. For example, the famous Chipko movement in India, involving village people who hugged trees when loggers arrived to cut trees down, was not an NGO because although there were leaders and followers, there was no formal organization (Potter Taylor, 1996). These organizations are not really new but have been existing over the years. For instance, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds was founded in 1886; the Sierra club in 1892; the Audubon Society for Protection of Birds in 1886; the Wildlife conservation Society (as the New York Zoological Society) in 1895; and fauna and flora International (as the Society for the preservation of the Fauna of the Empire) in 1903. Some of the largest organizations were founded more recently, but with a specific focus on international conservation, including the World Wide fund for Nature (founded as, with some of its constituent organizations still operating as, the world Wildlife Fund) in 1961, and Conservation International in 1987 (Cobb et al., 2007). ENGOs may have existed for a century or more but it is only in recent decades, and particularly since the success of NGOs in shaping the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) or the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, that their numbers have multiplied. Participating civil society organizations officially recognized by the United Nations (UN) in this particular international conference were grouped into major groups such as women, children and youth, indigenous peoples and communities, NGOs, Workers and Trade, Scientific and Technological Community, Business and Industry and farmers. ENGOs are one of the key actors in shaping the creation of Agenda 21 and the Conventions on Biodiversity which saw a heightening of global consciousness about the needs of biodiversity conservation. These are international agreements signed by majority of the countries to guide the world in its actions for development and the environment in the 21st century. Over 20,000 participants of 9,000 organizations in 171 countries were present, and over 1,000 meetings were held between NGO representatives in a forum parallel to official intergovernmental discussions (Fisher 1993). Thus, this event culminated the increasing attention paid to biological conservation by NGOs. Since then, ENGOs expanded their conservation efforts on the ground, especially in tropical countries. For instance, the international conservation programmes of the Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) have grown from just over $3 million in the late 1980s, to nearly $50 million in 2005, nearly half of WCSs overall operating budget (MacDonald Service, 2007). Although the WCS has programmes in North America, all but $5 million of these funds are sent overseas in developing countries. The Nature Conservancy (TNC), founded in 1951 primarily focus on USA conservation issues, is probably the largest conservation organization in the world, with one million members, and an annual budget of over $800 million (The Nature conservancy, 2004). Conservation International (CI), with a focus on biodiversity hotspots and tropical wilderness areas, was founded in 1987 and has grown to an organization with an annual budget of over $100 million. Roles ENGOs Play ENGOs involved in biological conservation are highly diverse, including local, national, regional, and international groups with various missions dedicated to environmental protection, sustainable development, poverty alleviation, animal welfare, and other issues. A key area in which ENGOs have made an imprint is in assisting the global community to establish global priorities. Such approaches included from those that look at representation of species and habitat types, those that focus on species diversity and levels of threats, those that focus on areas of higher or lower human impact as a surrogate for scaling threat and those that focus on levels of endemism and evolutionary uniqueness in a particular taxon (Cobb et al., 2007). ENGOs importance lies as well in their expertise (Esty, 1998; Charnovitz, 1996). They conduct scientific research and disseminate the results to policy-makers and public (Mohd Ahmad, 2005; Jasanoff 1997; Madon 1999). The degree to which NGOs pursue expert knowledge for complex scientific predicaments makes them critical international players. They translate this knowledge into action. As added by Hempel (1988), international environmental NGOs are usually better prepared than governments to implement studies of environmental protection. NGOs often have much better analytical and technical skills and capacity to respond more quickly than government officials. NGOs can also mobilize and influence individuals or group of individuals to address a problem through awareness campaigns and outreach (Bauer, 2006; Gunter, 2004) and express that issue interest to government agencies. ENGOs raise awareness through media stunts. Through TV, radio, newspapers, and magazines, ENGOS bring this envi ronmental abuse into peoples everyday lives and enable people to act bear witness (Wapner, 1995). Additionally, ENGOS stimulate public pressure aimed at changing governmental policy or directly lobbying state officials. They facilitate in defining an issue area, convince policymakers and publics that the problems thus defined are soluble, prescribe solutions, and monitor their implementation (Keck and Sikkink 1998). ENGOs also aid in empowering local communities to increase capacity and capability in carrying out biological conservation projects; they organize and conduct seminars, environmental education programmes and expeditions to natural; and target private actors in their campaigning efforts (Raustiala, 1997; Themudo, 2000; Chitra, 2003; Jepson, 2005). Indeed, ENGOs have been major contributors to biological conservation by providing funds and expertise, building public support, promoting action, and advocating conservation interests. As argued Gunter (2004), ENGOs are the most appropriate medium for protecting biological resources because of their unique ability to see both small and big and their unique positions above and below the state. NGOs operate at both the micro and macro levels, working on the ground in local villages as well as participating in international negotiations. Moreover, Gunter argued that states are paradoxically both too big and too small when it comes to resolving transnational threats like loss of biodiversity or climate change. ENGOs generally obtain most of their funds from national governments, government agencies, bilateral and multilateral banks, large foundations, transnational corporations, and international foreign aid agencies like UNDP, UNEP and the Global environmental facility (GEF) (Dowie, 2009; Bebbington Riddell, 1995). The GEF which is a multilateral funding mechanism prepared to reduce the burden from Southern countries for environmental protection has become a pilot program to a permanent financial mechanism in 1994 and is supporting the growth of ENGOS. GEF is under the stewardship of the World Bank and the United Nations. The World Bank manages a significant portion of GEF biodiversity funding and also makes additional grants and loans in the biodiversity and protected area domains. ENGOS engage in various activities meant to influence public support. Smith and Connelly (1999) identify ten (10) types of ENGO activity: informal, discreet lobbying; formal lobbying; collecting and sending letters or petitions from the public; producing scientific research and reports; taking legal action; organizing demonstrations and marches; staging media stunts; promoting consumer boycotts; engaging in non-violent direct action; and, engaging in violent direct action. To this list, one might also add giving campaign contributions or endorsements to environmentally-friendly candidates (Grossman and Helpman, 1994, 1999). This activity mostly directly political support and can change the weight given to ENGOS in the political calculus (Binder, S and E. Neumayer, 2005) On the other hand, Gunter (2004) summarized the common strategies used by ENGOs. The two main categories of different approaches are mainstream strategies which include lobbying, litigation, scientific/technical research, property acquisition/maintenance, and monitoring and participatory strategies like grassroots networking and community education. Very few studies are conducted on how people perceive ENGO as one of the crucial players in biological conservation. Researchers like Hyseni (2008), Wong (2003) and Ivy et al. (1998) assessed the attitudes of local people and students towards these organizations but the main focus of their studies were not directed to the roles of ENGOS in general. As Jasanoff (1997) contends, the systematic assessment of the role that ENGOS play in environmental decision making remains noticeably absent in the studies to date. Philippine ENGOs Teehankee (1993) reported that environmental NGOs in the Philippines emerged in the late 1970s and early 1980s. During the martial law in the early 1970s, social movements appeared provoked by the dictatorship. Militant organizations pressured for political structural and ideological changes. Social movements and other civil society groups started to register as legal entities to be formally recognized by government. This was to avoid being tagged as illegal rabble rousers. In 1986, the EDSA I or the People Power Revolution replaced the totalitarian martial law by the democratic force of the people. Accordingly, two streams from which present-day environmental NGOs originated were identified. The first stream is composed of nature lovers such as conservationist societies and hobby groups which alter expanded their concerns to socio-political issues related to environment and government policies. The other stream is said to consist of field-based activist groups concerned with human r ight issues of tribal communities and poor settlers being displaced by environmentally-destructive projects of the martial law regime. The Philippine Federation for Environmental Concerns (PFEC) was established and this commemorated the first effort at coordination and networking among environmental NGOs. Two more national federations emerged since then the Philippine Environmental Action Network (PEAN) and the Lingkod Tao Kalikasan (LTK). Numerous groups mushroomed then like Haribon Foundation, World Ecologists, Green Forum, and Earth Savers. Aside from the diversification of environmental NGO activities into community resource endeavours, the post-Marcos period was also characterized by the decision of prominent development NGOs, like the Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement (PRRM), to integrate environmental concerns into their strategic programs (Magno, 1999). . Environmental NGOs were very few before the 1960s. There were sporadic efforts at conservation. Up to about 1970, influenced by the spirit of the time, most development NGOs didnt consider the environment as part of the development framework. Environmental concerns were isolated from social development. Carrying capacity of the environment was not given importance due to the abundance of what nature can provide then. Environmentalists, on the other hand dedicated their work on protection and conservation of genus and species for its authenticity and aesthetic value with no qualms about poverty and human development. Most of the conservationists then came from philanthropists and rich individuals Philippine ENGOs have done and still do fund raising, modelling and implementing viable methods and strategies in the protection and conservation of the environment toward sustainable development. They play multiple roles in influencing policy reform and formulation. The most common role would be that of a lobbyist, using social pressure and the media. Furthermore, many NGOs also play the role of community organizers, educators/trainors, researchers, media practitioners, negotiators, advocates, and catalysts. Taiwan ENGOs Taiwans environmental awareness was not awakened until the 1970s and then was limited to small group of people, mainly from the intellectual class. Not until the late 1980s did the general publics concern over the environmental issues bloom. During this time, environmental problems had reached crisis proportions. The countrys economic miracle was achieved at the cost of environmental deterioration. Reported serious pollution incidents like the one caused by Du Pont in 1986 and the Lee Chang rong Chemical factory in 1982 drew public attention (McBeath Leng, 2006). These events showed that local residents finally had gained environmental consciousness due to unbearable pollution and environmental damage. At this stage, environmental protests led by opposition politicians reflected NIMBYism (not in my backyard)- complaints about local environmental pollution. As reported by Hsiao (1999), there are three streams of environmental movements in Taiwan. These are the anti-pollution, nature conservation, and anti-nuclear movements. In the nature conservation movement, people become more concerned with destruction of Taiwans natural resources. Hence, ENGOs emerged and perceived as key actors in this particular campaign. After the lifting of martial law and as democratization programs were launched in the late 1980s, the environmental movement also gained momentum and developed a national instead of a local focus. During this period, ENGOs accumulated social capital and public trust in Taiwanese society. ENGOs helped to create a plural society through the enlargement of channels of social participation and communication. ENGOs were said to be champions and advocates of Taiwans democratization at early stage, and laid a foundation for democratic consolidation after the md-1990s. The general public gradually learned to think beyond local instances of environmental abuse and paid greater attention to ensuring balance in national policy among economic development, environmental protection, and social justice. Nation-wide ENGOs emerged then from the early to mid-1990s. Hsiao (1999) estimated that there are over 232 environmental NGOs in Taiwan. Most recognizable groups are The Society of Wildlife and Natu re, Bird Society, Taiwan Greenpeace Association, Ecological Conservation Alliance, Life Conservationist Association, Homemakers Union and Foundation, Green Consumers Foundation, Wetlands Taiwan and The Nature Conservation Union. International environmental organizations are not regular participants in domestic environmental protection. Taiwans diplomatic isolation constrains its participation in major international organizations, and international lending institutions such as the World bank and Asian development Bank are not actively involved in its environmental policies. However, occasionally, ENGOs have built close relationships with major international NGOs. In the past, domestic ENGOs exposed cases of trafficking in illegal wildlife and ecological degradation to the international mass media and invited international NGOs to monitor Taiwans mitigation record. McBeath and Leng (2006) outlined the common roles that ENGOS play in Taiwan and these are organizing grassroots demonstrations, promoting public policy making, setting the agenda of public issues, educating the public on environmental issues, monitoring government policies and publicising environmental issues.

To Kill A Mockingbird Essay :: Kill Mockingbird essays

Modes of Communication in To Kill a Mockingbird      Effective communication is a result of the utilization of different techniques to convey a particular idea or perspective. Different methods used to express a person's feelings are found throughout society and aid in creating a learned individual, family, and community. In the novel To Kill a Mocking Bird, Harper Lee uses several modes of communication to display her feelings on moral, political, and social issues. Lee's tactics parallel those used by one character in her novel, Atticus Finch. In order to express his feelings to his children, Atticus uses three simple teaching devices; the use of examples, verbal statements, and learning through experience. Although Atticus uses these techniques to develop his children into positive members of society, Lee uses them to create an image for the reader that will ultimately constitute a general understanding of growing up in the south in the mid-nineteen thirties.    One of the methods of communication that Atticus Finch uses is that of an example. By providing his children with a realistic and visual model, Atticus establishes an exemplary learning environment. The most prevalent display of Atticus' utilization of examples is the one he sets himself. He makes it a common practice to live his life as he would like his children to live theirs, and thus displays the attributes of an honest, respectable, and kind man. Atticus demonstrates his character by defending Tom Robinson, a black man on trial for the rape of a white woman. Throughout the trial process, Atticus shows Jem and Scout that true courage is standing up for what you believe in and that all worthy human beings, despite their race, deserve respect. Atticus also tries to be a perfect southern gentleman, teaching Jem and Scout to have grace and compassion for all people. His treatment of Mrs. Dubose proves this characteristic. Even though Mrs. Dubose makes vicious comments and criticisms of Atticus and his children, he still manages to treat her in the kindest manner; complimenting her appearance and helping her into her chair. Atticus sets examples to teach Jem and Scout some values a good person should have. Harper Lee, however, uses examples of life in her novel to give a broader view of humankind.    In order to depict the values, attitudes, and class structures of a small southern town in the mid-nineteen thirties, Harper Lee created various examples.

Why Early Twentieth Century Women Made their Splash in Arizona Politics :: Essays Papers

Why Early Twentieth Century Women Made their Splash in Arizona Politics Since the beginning of Arizona history, women were confined to the traditional roles of housekeeping and child rearing due to the conditions of life on the frontier. At this time, Arizona was a land of chaos and therefore lacked a civilized community. In effect, women’s most important responsibility remained within her home to create a comforting and refined atmosphere which would ultimately raise the standard of living in Arizona (Fischer 47). These ideas continued to emerge in the twentieth century and left women with few choices and opportunities. However, two women, Josephine Hughes and Isabella Greenway, were able to free themselves from the constraints of society and undertake influential roles in the political realm because of the extraordinary but favorable circumstances in their lives. Both women were wealthy, courageous, persistent, or associated with powerful and influential men. Josephine Hughes amazingly rose above societal norms and played an active role in political movements because of her privileged financial status. Because she was a woman of means, her home had all of the modern conveniences of the time. For instance, her home was the first in the Tucson area to be illuminated with candlesticks while her neighbors used a burning rag in a saucer of grease as a means for lighting. Most importantly, the Hughes’ were the first to obtain a cistern which was considered a luxury because they no longer had to buy their drinking water from peddlers who sold it a very high price (Boehringer 99). These conveniences eliminated the monotonous, time-consuming activities necessary for a woman to sustain a household. Therefore, she had more time and energy to dedicate herself to various causes such as the suffrage and temperance movements. However, Josephine Hughes was able to surpass the restraints imposed by tradition because she possessed a quality that simply could not be bought: courage. She manifested such inner strength especially in situations when the odds were against her. In 1892, she made the treacherous journey from Pennsylvania to the West with her infant daughter. At this time, the Apaches conducted a series of violent raids that left many white settlers in the area dead. Because of the obvious danger, Josephine carried her baby in one arm and a loaded rifle in the other (98).

Death Through Sacrifice :: Greek Culture Traditions Papers

Death Through Sacrifice Death is one of the most terrible things we humans have to go through. Where do we go after death? Is there a Hell or a Heaven? These are questions that still remain without answers. Since remote times, men have wondered about this, but not even technology has helped us to find answers. Some people are said to have answers; it is true they do have answers, but answers that mainly fix their religious beliefs. Almost all religions have a theory about death, but they vary from one to another, and sometimes the difference is big. But have we ever wondered: How long have cultures and religions proposed theories for life after death? The answer is, since millions of years ago. If we go to ancient cultures, like the Greek or the Aztec cultures, we can recognize their theories to be really close to our own. The idea that there is a hell and a heaven, and after death you are judged --if you were good during your life you go to heaven; if not, you are punished in hell-- still remains in present cultures. Even though the theories may have many similarities, there are a few aspects related to death in ancient culture that we see as obsolete and horrifying. An example of this is sacrifice. In today?s society, sacrifice is not legal, and it is considered cruel and barbarian. This is the way most people view animal sacrifices because we do not even consider human sacrifices to be possible. In ancient cultures, both animal and human sacrifices were normal. For many cultures it was an absolute necessity for human survival because if food was not offered to the gods then they could not keep the world going. If we analyze some of the oldest cultures like Greece and the Aztecs, we can see that even though they both practiced sacrifices, the way they did it and to what extent, varies considerably. For example, the Greek practice both animal and human sacrifices, but not so often; while in the other hand, the Aztecs practiced mainly human sacrifices and very often. The Greeks have a long history with sacrifices: "We see in Greece a society in which the basic ritual acts in daily practice are of a sacrificial type. For nearly ten centuries, guided by immutable cultic statutes, the Greeks never failed to maintain relations with the divine power through the highly ritualized killing of animal victim, whose flesh was consumed collectively according to precise strictures" (Detienne and Vernant 1).

Another One Bites The Dust :: essays research papers

Another One Bites the â€Å"Dust† Sweet Diamond Dust, written by Rosario Ferre, focuses on modernization and how it’s impacted the country of Puerto Rico and it’s people. This book discusses the struggles and hardships of managing sugar mills and the influential changes the Americans brought to Puerto Rico in the early 1900’s. The Americans triumph over the local landowners and their sugar mills, was not all from their own doings. Their successes is in part of the town’s own greed. Through manipulation, persuasion, and cunnings, Diamond Dust was able to survive through the toughest of hardships, and still manage to be the only competitor (in Puerto Rico) to the northerners. With Diamond Dust’s success also came a price, and with the very same methods that brought the mill to its climax, also made it fall to its knees, through greed. In the beginning there was much talk of how proud the people of Puerto Rico were of their country, â€Å"Built on the gently rolling slopes that descend form Mount Guamani, it looks upon a savannah of fabulously fertile loam, whose sabled, furrowed topsoil is considered to be one of the richest in the world.† (3-4) But as the book progresses, it begins to reveal its true side. The town of Guamani was not as peaceful and giving as it is told to be. The writer tends to discuss how the Americans arrival has changed the town for the worse. â€Å" Far from being a paradise, Guamani has become a hell, a monstrous whirlpool from which the terrifying funnel of Snow White Sugar Mills spews out sugar night and day toward the north.† (7) Many Puerto Ricans of lower stature or less well of than the rich, truly believed the northerners were saviors who helped modernize a town in need of relief:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   All this was done away with when the foreigners came: they established modern methods of reaping and planting; the field hands were treated like human beings instead of like slaves; their children could go to school; they were given adequate housing and shoes†¦ In other words, the northerners were a blessing to the poor and to the middle class as well, albeit to the rich. (68) Diamond Dust faced many hardships that could have easily wiped it out of business, but thanks to the devotion and patience spent managing the land, it overcame many close turnovers. Between Don

“Same-Sex Marriage Should Not Be Legalized”

PONTICIFICA UNIVERSIDAD CATOLICA MDRE Y MAESTRA. RECINTO SANTO TOMAS DE AQUINO. Academic Writing ILE-322 Student Name: Leslie Herrera. ID Number: 2009-5699 Teacher: Emilia Gracia Final Draft: Essay 3. â€Å"Same-Sex Marriage Should Not Be Legalized†. July 18th 2012. Same-Sex Marriage Should Not Be Legalized. As we know, same-sex marriage has been discussed and argued for a long time. Within the controversial topic of gay rights, there’s no area more controversial than same-sex marriage. And all of us ask ourselves if same-sex marriage should be legal or not. But the fact is that we have to start thinking about it as a moral and religious topic.The government shouldn’t legalize the same-sex marriage because the legal definition of marriage is the civil union between a man and a woman, marriage is a religious rite, and also those couples will be able to adopt children if they are given the right to marry. Same-sex marriage is also known as gay marriage. Same-sex ma rriage is between two people of the same gender. The Netherlands became the first country to legalize same-sex marriage in 2001; in the United States of America, the first state to legalize same-sex marriage was Massachusetts, on May 17, 2004. According to ProCon. rg (2011), as of May 10, 2012, same-sex marriage has been legalized in eight states such as: Massachusetts, Connecticut, Lowa, Vermont, New Hampshire, New York, Washington, Maryland, and the District of Columbia which will be effective on January 1, 2013. This has become an even more controversial topic since these current legalizations of same-sex marriage. One argument against same-sex marriage is that the legal definition of marriage is the civil union between a man and a woman. â€Å"The institution of marriage has traditionally been defined as between a man and a woman† (ProCon. rg, 2011, Con Gay Marriage,  ¶1). Further, if any government gives the right to marry same-sex couples this traditional institution of marriage will weaken. â€Å"Marriage runs contrary to two of the primary goals of the lesbian and gay movement: the affirmation of gay identity and culture and the validation of many forms of relationships† (ProCon. org, 2011, Con Gay Marriage,  ¶8). Therefore, same-sex marriage is totally the opposite of the traditional institution of marriage; those are two things that cannot have the same rights, and actually God made us to be heterosexual no homosexual.In addition, marriage is a religious rite. â€Å"Gay marriage is not compatible with the beliefs, sacred texts, and traditions of many religious groups† (ProCon. org, 2011, Con Gay Marriage,  ¶4). In fact, we know that most of the religions are opposing same-sex marriage, because they are always guided by the Bible and God’s commandments and his teachings. â€Å"Marriage was established by the Creator with its own nature, essential properties and purpose. No ideology can erase from the human spirit the certainty that marriage exists solely between a man and a woman† (ProCon. org, 2011, Con Gay Marriage,  ¶12).If same-sex is legalized, churches and other religious institutions would be forced to change their rules in order to marry same-sex marriage couples. Furthermore, one of the biggest problems for society and probably the most important for new generations is that same-sex marriage would be that those couples will be able to adopt children if they are given the right to marry. â€Å"The institution of marriage as a union of man and woman, uniquely involving the procreation and rearing of children within a family, is as old as the book of Genesis† (ProCon. org, 2011, Con Gay Marriage,  ¶1).Children need both a mother and a father, because they learn a lot from each of them. â€Å"Girls who are raised apart from their fathers are reportedly at higher risk for early sexual activity and teenage pregnancy. Children without a mother are deprived of the emotional s ecurity and unique advice that mothers provide† (ProCon. org, 2011, Con Gay Marriage,  ¶6). Besides, same-sex marriage will intensify to the assimilation of homosexuals into a heterosexual culture. And probably that one of the facts that can affects the society the most, because if that happened our moral and religious values would be lost.The supporters and people who are for the same-sex marriage argue that they should have the right to civil marriage because of same marriage benefits, such as: health insurance and public acceptance which heterosexual couples have. Nevertheless, that argument of the supporters is irrelevant, because each person can have his or her own health insurance that provides their workplace, so they don’t need a family or spouse health insurance to have the same benefits as traditional marriage. On other hand, if the government were to legalize same-sex marriage the public acceptance is not guaranteed.Because people are that decided in what t hey are going to believe, maybe some people will accept this and a larger group of people disagrees. Therefore, the government don’t have to legalized the same-sex marriage in order to people accept homosexual family or marriage or to receive health insurance. Hence, no government should legalize same-sex marriage for all the facts that this action may involve, for example, those couples will be able to adopt children and also because of moral and religious values.Accordingly about what we have read, the legalization of same-sex marriage is an unmoral and unreligious action. I think that promoting homosexuality with government-backed same-sex marriage it would hurt our children, the generations that are growing, the country, and also the entire world. If a homosexual man or woman wants to get married, the only thing they need to do is choose not to be homosexual and marry someone of the opposite sex. Reference Pro. Con. org. (2011, January 9). Should gay marriage be legal?. G ay Marriage. Retrieved from http://www. gaymariage. procon. org

The Great Escape Movie and Real Story

The movie The Great Escape was based on the escape of many prisoners from a Nazi prison camp during World War II. Unfortunately, only a couple of the escapees made it to safety before being captured again. Once the prisoners were captured, they were sent to a Nazi prison camp called Stalag. If they had done nothing except passing their time patiently they would have been able to make it through the war safely. However, the Germans were rather dependent upon their adversaries not putting up resistance. They had to be defeated and this would take a collective effort. The men who are the real heroes are those that took the risks and made the sacrifices. The â€Å"Great Escape† was showing the prisoners of war (POWs) resistance towards the fascist state of Germany and this is what made this prison break so much different than that of any other Hollywood movie involving a prison break. Even though the plan that they had set forth failed, that isn’t the point the point was that they took it into their own hands and tried as hard as they could to escape. The movie was based off of a true story about a group of Allied POW’s that attempted to escape from what was thought to be an impenetrable Nazi prison camp during World War II. At the beginning, the Nazi’s gather some of the most devious and troublesome POWs and placed them into a prison camp. Soon after arriving there, they are already plotting their escape. They plan on building three separate tunnels that they refer to as â€Å"Tom†, â€Å"Dick†, and â€Å"Harry†. One of the ways that the men removed dirt from the tunnels in progress was by hiding bags in their trousers to spread the dirt over the camp, under the guard’s noses. On the first day there were many failed attempts at escaping, eventually they settled in. one of the men is told that if he tries to escape one more time he will be shot, and is placed back with the rest of the POWs. Being locked up with every escape artist in Germany, one of the men tries to plot a way to break 250 prisoners out of Stalag. The intent of this operation was to confuse the enemy to the point of them moving as many troops from the front lines to search for all of the escapees that it would be a waste of resources and troops. The prisoners ere at work on the three tunnels and two of them were discovered before completion. Eventually tunnel â€Å"Tom† was completed but was found to be 20 feet short of the woods, due to this, only 76 men were able to escape. Almost all of the POWs were either recaptured and/or killed. Only three of the men made it to safety. The real story of the â€Å"Great Escape† was â€Å"the mass escape of 76 Allied POWs from Stalag Luf t III in March of 1944. † It all started when and Allied aircrew was shot down during World War II. The war camp was being run by the Luftwaffe, called Stalag Luft which was short for Stammlager Luft. The camp was opened May of 1942. The German Luftwaffe had respect for their fellow flyers and their treatment of the prisoners should not be confused with that of the SS or Gestopo. The Luftwaffe treated the POWs well even though there was a very inconsistent supply of food. The security was very strict but life was not intolerable for the prisoners. The camp grew to hold 10,000 POWs, was 59 acres and had 5 miles of perimeter fencing. Food in the camp would have been a major issue if it weren’t for the International Red Cross. Most people would think that the guards got plenty of food, but realistically they weren’t too much better off. Also; the Red Cross provided the prisoners with replacement clothing, shower items, coffees and teas, jams, meats, sugars, and all of these were distributed equally amongst the people. There was prolonged starvation and if it weren’t for the Red Cross parcels things would have been much worse. Some of the captured officers were paid an equivalent of their pay and were able to purchase things, but it was strictly forbidden to be in possession of the real German currency, and this was a vital aid in escape. Another thing that was strictly forbidden was civilian clothing. Most prisoners were commonly dressed in uniforms and any footwear they had, and any man that had civilian clothing was sure to keep it safe. One thing that was vital was to carry and aircrew badge, otherwise upon escaping they could be thought to be a spy. Some of the finest escape artists of the Allied forces were placed in Luft III, and one of those men being Squadron leader Roger J Bushell who was shot down May 1940 during the Battle of France. He collected the most skilled forgers, tailors, tunnel engineers and surveillance experts and told them his plan of sending 250 men outside of the wire fences of Stalag. He knew that this would cause tremendous problems for his enemy because it would divert both men and resources to capture the escapees. His plan wasn’t really intending to return men to their homeland but to cause a major problem with the Germans. He decided to go through with this plan although he had already been told that if he escaped or tried to escape again it would result in him being shot. Security at Stalag was intended to be the best, but there were some flaws with it, one of these flaws being that the Germans were known around the world as being â€Å"goons†. They recived this name because they were definitely not the ‘cream of the Luftwaffe’ and were well known for shooting first and asking questions later. They could also be considered ‘trigger happy’ since there were many incidents of unnecessary use of firearms. The German guards that were highly skilled at detecting escape were called â€Å"ferrets†. They had the ability to enter the compound when they please and search any hut without any given warning. They’d normally search for bright yellow sand because that was an indication that a tunnel was in progress. When they found a tunnel, they would allow it to keep being built until it was close to completion then they would drive heavy vehicles around the camp grounds to collapse the tunnel. The prisoners had three tunnels going and they were named â€Å"Tom†, â€Å"Dick†, and â€Å"Harry†. â€Å"Tom† was started in Hut 105, â€Å"Harry† was in Hut 104, and â€Å"Dick† was concealed beneath a shower drain under Hut 122 and would be under several feet of water, and the Germans never found it. The sudden ‘pounces’ by the ferrets caused consistent nightmares for the tunnel diggers, during one occasion the door to Harry was replaced and fully camouflaged in twenty seconds leaving no sign of a tunnel entrance. The formation of these tunnels wasn’t the easiest because they were under ground and there is limited space to displace the dirt removed to create the tunnel. On method of removing the dirt from the tunnel areas was by filing long thin bags that the men slipped inside their trousers and would walk around losing the sand through a hole in the bottom of it. These men were known as ‘penguins’. Unfortunately, one of the men was careless and was spotted by a ferret when he was walking around the compound so they knew that a tunnel was under way, they just didn’t know where. The process of tunneling was very dangerous, because if a tunnel caved in there was only enough time to cover your head and wait for the ‘number two’ to dig you out. No one ever died, but a few many were forced to stay off work due to suffocation. In order to make these tunnels dependable, they used approximately 4,000 bed boards to form the shoring. These bed boards came from the beds of the prisoners. Most of them became used to sleeping on the barest of supports. The size of the tunnel depended upon that of the boards, so the tunnel is approximately 2 feet square. A wooden railway was put into the tunnel to remove sand along the tunnel. One of the men had spotted an 800 foot coil of electrical wire and took it to use it for lighting through the tunnel. The Germans were aware that something was going on but they were never able to find anything. Eventually they moved 19 of the top suspects which had included 6 of the key men in this operation to another prison camp only weeks before the escape was planned to take place. Luckily, Bushell’s role in the escape was well camouflaged and the Germans had left him behind. When the men were transferred without warning the work didn’t stop. Soon â€Å"Dick† was abandoned because the area that it was to exit at there was a new prison camp built there. Issues arose with the displacement of sand and â€Å"Dick† was eventually used for disposal of sand. When â€Å"Tom† was near completion, it was discovered by a ferret and the Germans destroyed it all, so all work was shifted to â€Å"Harry†. In March of 1944, â€Å"Harry† reached a length of 336 feet. Upon completion, Flight Lieutenant Johnny Bull had discovered that the tunnel was well short of the tree line and was within 30 yards of the nearest watch tower. During this time snow was laying on the ground so it was near impossible to not leave a trail and this caused the escape to slow down greatly and the situation was worsened by the occurance of an air raid. The Germans were forced to shut off all power, so there was no light in the tunnel. Instead of one man a minute the escape was reduced down to only one dozen per hour, so any man with an escape number higher than 100 had no chance of getting out this night. By dawn, only 76 men had escaped and made their way beyond the woods. One man tugged at the signal rope, meaning â€Å"stay put† but the man making his way through the tunnel though that it meant the opposite signal, so he emerged from the tunnel right under the feet of one of the guards. For some seconds he did not see the tracks in the snow and body-heat steam drifting upwards from the tunnel mouth, but he eventually noticed the signs, raised his rifle, and fired a wild shot at the man trying to escape and blew his whistle. The man that preceded him was waiting in the woods and decided to run for it and so did so did the man that was coming out of the tunnel, but the next man in the tunnel was apprehended at rifle point, stood up and surrendered. All the men who had been waiting in the tunnel managed to return to Hut 104, burned their false papers, and ate their carefully saved food rations because the Germans were sure to confiscate them. The ferrets didn’t find the entrance to the tunnel, and by the time they reached the hut, the men were sound asleep. In the darkness of the night few of the escapees had found the railway station and missed their train and were waiting on the platforms trying to avoid each other. Most of the men were captured before they were even able to leave the area. This movie was very accurate in comparison to the real story, which I find quite surprising for a Hollywood film. This was a great movie of an escape plan that didn’t quite work as well as it could have, but none the less it was for sure a great escape.